Does a control tower always mean class D (or better)?
No.

Does class D always mean a control tower?
No.

Is the D equivalent to a "surface area"?
No.

Ok. I checked the AIM. A "surface area" is the airspace contained by
the lateral boundries of B, C, D, or E airspace designated for an
airport tha begins at the surface and extends upwards.

Indefinately? To outer space? To the limit of that class airspace?

Special VFR operations are conducted within a class B, C, D, or E
surface area. Class E airspace is controlled airspace that is not A, B,
C, or D.

So, if a class D surrounding an airport is overlain by class E, it seems
I should be able to get a special VFR clearance up to 18000 feet (where
class A generally begins). No?

When would an operating control tower not induce class D (or better)
airspace? When would a class D airspace not have a control tower? They
are usually correlated, but I seem to remember that they are not
necessarily correlated.

Jose
--
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